The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde Essay -- Robert Louis Stev

The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, written by Robert Louis Stevenson, is a story rife with the imagery of a troubled psyche. Admittedly taken largely from Stevenson’s dreams, it undoubtably sheds light on the author’s own hidden fears and desires. Written at the turn of the 19th Century, it also reflects the psychology of society in general at the same time when Sigmund Freud was setting about to do the same thing. While Freud is often criticized for his seemingly excessive emphasis on sexual suppression as the leading cause of psychological disturbances, the time period in which he lived was exceedingly strict on what constituted appropriate and inappropriate behavior. Accordingly, Freud hypothesized that the majority of people were obliged to hide their unacceptable thoughts and feelings down in the depths of their unconscious from whence they would inevitably escape from at a later time to manifest in a variety of ways. The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde illustrates Freud’s theory of repression throughout the entirety of the story and shows the negative consequences associated with this coping strategy. Henry Jekyll is the character who has repressed the most and who consequently suffers the direst of outcomes. In his statement of his experiences leading up to the emergence of Edward Hyde, one anticipates the revelation of some early trauma of a fairly significant scale that would clarify the man’s need to regress to an alternate identity. However, Jekyll’s letter is free from any mention of anything of the sort. He instead emphasizes his â€Å"gaiety of disposition†, and his â€Å"guarantee† of a â€Å"distinguished future,† while steering clear of any descriptio... ...he reveals his struggle as he â€Å"sought with tears and prayers to smother down the crowd of hideous images and sounds with which my memory swarmed against me† (57). His fight with repression was a losing battle as was everyone else’s. They made the mistake of believing that an issue can be buried deep enough in the unconscious to remain hidden forever. Had Freud’s theories been made public a few years earlier they may have realized the irrationality of their actions and that openly addressing troubling material is the only way to resolve it. For as the Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde makes disturbingly clear, small problems can grow into catastrophic ones when they finally break the surface, and they inevitably will as the fog cannot hold forever. Works Cited Stevenson, Robert Louis. Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. New York: Norton, 2003.

Integrating sustainability Essay

During the recent years many challenges have started facing communities due to the controversial tendencies in the modern world- rapid urbanization and struggles of communities for keeping environment in the state which was common for it for many centuries. The problem which communities have come across now is very complex, and requires a very well-considered approach. On one hand, the present generation wants to enjoy all the benefits of the time and take advantages of everything what it offers to them. On the other hand, it’s important to maintain to the environment in such a way that future generations can take advantage of it as well. It’s impossible to use all of the natural resources in just recent years because further generations will not be able to use them. Therefore, issues of sustainability have become particularly sharp lately. One of the ways to face the challenge and devote necessary attention to sustainability issues is by carrying out well-balanced policy on the government level, defining the mission statement of the policy, setting correct objectives, analyzing the present state of environment and factors influencing it, and suggesting measures which can be used in order to implement the adopted strategies. The major role of strategic planning in this matter cannot be doubted. The strategy has to be carried out at the highest level in order to meet all of the goals which nowadays reality sets in front of us. In Sutherland Shire, the damage of land is connected with urban growth and the consequent influence on water quality, biodiversity and air quality. As the State of Environment Report states, â€Å"in 2002/03, a total of 2,728 development applications were received in the Shire. Of these, 2,400 development applications were approved (54 less than approved in 2001/02). Of all development applications received, 13% were associated with new residential development. Medium density development accounted for 2% (50) of all development applications in 2002/03. † (State of Environment Report, p. 10). Sutherland Shire Council has been very efficient during the recent years in setting objectives and implementing all the activities regarding environmental protection. The plans issued by the Sutherland Council manage to cover all the necessary issues which rise in the shire during the recent years. On one hand, the council focuses on the modern developments made in the shire but it also devotes lots of attention to environmental problems. In order to achieve maximum efficiency, the council regards all the activities provided in the shire to improve the life of dwellers through the prism of environmental protection. This approach has proved to be very efficient for present day realities. As the Management Plan of Sutherland Shire states, â€Å"†¦Sustainability is the ability to provide choices for future generations of the Shire without compromising those of our generation. The Shire has made progress in addressing challenges in community issues and safety, the natural environment, and transport, identified in 2000. Further integration of transport choices with land use, which affects community issues, safety and the environment, is required. An informed democratic process which carefully addresses Shire risks, and continued commitment to sustainability in council management, are fundamental to achieving sustainability. † (Management Plan, 15) The perception of sustainability provided by Sutherland Shire Council plays a very important role in all the activities provided by the council. They include solving problems regarding community safety, transport, natural environment, and some other issues. The Management Plan and State of Environment Plan of Sutherland Shire both focus on ecologically sustainable development. The whole purpose of such development is taking into consideration all of the objectives which were set in NSW Local Government Act in 1993. The Management Plan has also been created according to the council adopted Our Guide for Shaping the Shire to 2030. The major strategic goals which the council states in the Management Plan are â€Å"†¦to pursue sustainability across economic, social and environmental considerations. We address economic, social and environmental issues on a day to day basis and in this plan, have made this more tangible with triple bottom line statements against our principal activities† (Management Plan, p. 12). The plan also states that the council’s vision of the shire is â€Å"a community working together to attain safe, healthy and active lifestyles, through accountable decision-making, that achieves sustainable development and economic opportunities, that respect people and nature† (Management Plan, p. 11). Describing the vision of the shire is a very important part of strategic planning of the council because the achievement of the marked vision of the shire is the major strategic goal which the council sets for the community. The strategic goal is expressed very well in the plan, and this enables the council to plan the activities carefully in order to achieve the goal. According to all of the mentioned documents, all the developments which take place in the shire during the following years had to be done without damaging the natural environment and preventing future generations from enjoying the benefits of clean water, beautiful gardens and many other advantages which nature has given to the shire long ago. The NSW Local Government Act stated that urban development which is currently occurring in the shire is very dangerous for the natural resources, for example water, air quality, biodiversity. Therefore, when adopting future plans for the development of shire, it was very important for the local council to take into consideration all the measures which would prevent natural environment from damage. Most of the measures taken during the recent years were very successful in this regard. According to the Sutherland Shire Management Plan, the two key components of ESD in local government are: a requirement for natural resource protection actions (e. g. bushland, waterways, tree canopy, etc. ) in all unit work programs, based on management plan development, including descriptions of individual management responsibilities within core business; reporting State of the Environment results including likely outcomes for key natural resource health indicators as a result of community decisions on planning options. (Management Plan, p. 14). The council has planned many measures which would be crucial in environmental protection. In the UN-Derived Local Action 21 Program, all the measures taken for integration of council with the community were marked. All of the joint efforts of the council and the community had to be devoted to eliminating environmental problems. For example, some measures were taken regarding the areas which are currently experiencing planning change. The main emphasize in the plan was made on the risk assessment techniques which would provide all of the necessary data about the possible damage which could be given to the environment in the result of the measures. All of the objectives set in the UN-Derived Local Action 21 Program answered the main strategic goals placed in front of the environment. The results of the program implementation however showed the lack of organization communication and some mistakes made during transport planning, therefore some more consideration had to be devoted to the structure of the program in order to eliminate negative impact of the mentioned factors. The main directions which the Council has set are very meaningful and help to implement all the activities which it has stated in the strategic goal: ? pursuing ecologically sustainable development, meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising those of the future; ? demonstrating organizational delivery of integrated services and be environmentally, socially and economically responsible and accountable; ? managing resources to maintain financial viability and enhance service provision? promoting access, equity and a sense of community (Management Plan, p. 11). Most of the directions which have been set by the Council are very complex and require joint efforts of people involved in the community life. In order to increase the efficiency of implementing the goals which have been set by the council, it makes a decision to encourage as many people as possible to participate in the community life. Therefore, increasing the number of citizens involved in the community life serves one of the ways to achieve the directions mentioned above. There are some other issues on which the council chooses to focus in order to meet all of the challenges which can arise from the objectives set by it. According to the Management Plan of Sutherland Shire, the main issues on which the council is planning to focus during the next years included the following: ? Nurture our clean and beautiful natural environment; ? Improve our suburbs; ? Increase the number of citizens involved in community life; ? Maintain our prosperous local economy; ? Build safe, healthy and active lifestyles; ? Business activities; ? Support services (Management Plan). As it’s possible to tell from the list of activities which the council was providing, the main feature of the plan was combining activities leading to the increase of the level of life of people in the shire, brining development into their lifestyles, and at the same time focusing on the measures of environmental protection. It’s very important that the council has devoted lots of attention to the issue of nurturing the clean and beautiful natural environment of the Sutherland Shire. This features of the plan shows that the major strategic goals which have been put in from of the council are being implemented. The importance of other measures which have been taken by the council, like increasing the number of citizens involved in the community life, increasing the prosperity of local economy, building active lifestyles are very important as well. Those are also one of the measures which have to be taken to prepare future generations for a happy and prosperous life. If actions taken to protect environment are very important for the future generations ecology vice because they guarantee them life in a clean environment, actions taken to increase the prosperity of the shire are equally important. One of the major features of the Management Plan and State of Environment Report of Sutherland Shire is that the mentioned actions don’t come into controversion with one another. This is a very important achievement of the council’s planning which can be marked as an outstanding one. As long as the objectives of environmental activities and of urban development activities are well-balanced, the results of the plan implementation will always be positive. There are many activities which have been planned by the Council in order to protect the environment. In the plan, there have been included many activities which dealt with people’s recreation (like building public golf courses, tennis courts, vacation facilities), providing services for youth and older people and some others, but the main attention was devoted to environmental issues. The list of activities planned by the Council to protect the environment includes the following responsibilities and services: ? animal shelter ? beaches ? Bushcare ? certification (for development) ? Cleansing of public places ? clean-up campaign ? Earthworks ? economic development support? environmental assessment and application determination ? environmental compliance ? environmental education ? environmental health and regulation ? environmental planning ? environmental research and policy ? parks maintenance and construction ? plan of management for community land ? roads construction and traffic management ? stormwater drainage ? street cleaning ? waste collection and education (Management Plan, p. 13). In order to have a full view of how the activities have been balanced in the Management Plan, it’s necessary to investigate the data which is provided in the organizational budget summary. According to the data of capital works budget, the Council spends the most financial resources on building safe, healthy and active lifestyles (19,537,713), non-divisional programs and indirect income (18,073,881), and improving suburbs (10,253,947). The financial resources which are spent on nurturing clean and beautiful nature environment are the next in the list by the volume of budget expenses and can be estimated by 6,561,895. This figure appears quite low in comparison with other activities on which budget money goes. In order to maintain the environment, it’s necessary for the Council to re-structure the expenses of the budget and make sure that more resources are channeled to the environmental protection. The amount of budget money spent on building safe, healthy and active lifestyles is too high, and it’s important for the Council to devote enough attention to environmental protection. The resources which have been channeled for this issue are insufficient, and it’s necessary for the budget planners to take a closer look at this problem. The environmental programs which have been planned by the Council require substantial financial support, therefore the budget has to be planned accordingly to the possible cost of the programs. For example, as the State of Environment report marks, the following programs have been initiated by the Council: Oyster Bay Trip Substitution Project, Beaches to Bay Bus, Travel access Guides in order to reduce car use. Those projects need substantial financial support from the government. It’s very important to take measures in protecting environmentally sensitive land such as Botany Bay National Park, Geroges River National Park, Heathcote National Park, Royal National Park. In order to protect environmentally sensitive land, financial support from the council is very much needed, and large sums of money have to be channeled to the mentioned activities. As the investigations have shown, the Southerland Shire Management Plan and State of Environment report provide sufficient strategic and operational directions. They both reflect all of the strategic goals which have been set for the shire in order to provide choices for future generations without preventing present generations from enjoying all the benefits of nowadays reality. The actions marked in the plan represent a compromise between the necessity of rapid urban growth dictated by present day realities and the necessity to protect environment for future generations to enjoy beautiful nature and clean air in the same way we do now. Bibliography. 1. Management Plan. Sutherland Shire Council. 2. NSW Local Government Act, 1993. 3. State of Environment Report 2002/2003. Sutherland Shire Council.

Infamous Salem Witch Trials - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1095 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2019/05/21 Category History Essay Level High school Tags: Salem Witch Trials Essay Did you like this example? When looking back at American history, there are many historic events that have either helped shape or change Americars future. However, one of the most memorable years has to be the year of 1692, for this was one of the most scandalous times that is famously remembered in history. This is best known as the infamous Salem Witch Trials. The Salem witch trials was a disastrous event in which certain people were either falsely or rightfully accused of practicing witchcraft and sentenced to be either hanged or sent to jail. Even though these trials took place in a number of cities within the Massachusetts Bay Colony, it was being primarily focused in the town of Salem between February 1692 and May 1693. These trials were by far the largest witchcraft hysteria in the history of Colonial America. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Infamous Salem Witch Trials" essay for you Create order The start of these trials began during the spring of 1692; a group of young girls in Salem began claiming that they have been possessed by the devil. All through the summer of 1692 the convictions mounted. The first hanging, of Bridget Bishop, took place on June 10, the next five, including Rebecca Nurse, on July 19. On August 19 five more, four of them men, were hanged (Brandt, 2014, p. 34â€Å"43). During these accusations, Mather began to defend the trials by ignoring the form of evidence based upon dreams and visions. This type of evidence is called Spectral evidence, Mather used this to convict those he believed were witches and began to become a main key in the trials of four of the five accused, unlike Bridget Bishoprs trial. The New Englanders are a people of god settled in those, which were once the Devilrs territories (Mather, 2017, p. 12). Shortly after, the court apparently overlooked Mathers warning about ignoring spectral evidence but took to heart his exhortation to c leanse the land, and the pace of the trials picked up (Hoffer, 1997). People felt the use of spectral evidence was unreliable because the Devil could take the form of an innocent person to do his evil deeds. With the girls displaying strange behaviors and showing symptoms of illness, more people in Salem began displaying the same signs of distress. Everyone became a suspect of witchcraft, and it was only a matter of time before someone accused them to be tried in court. Although most of the accused witches were women, some men were also accused. The Puritans began to fear whether or not they were to be punished and/or hanged. In his book The Salem Witchcraft Trials, author Peter Charles Hoffer describes this human fear as part of the frailty of human nature. Whether it was the fear of disobeying God or hysteria that motivated these trials to take place, the accusations did not stop anytime soon. As time went on and the number of accused continued to grow, several people became upset with the trials. Many risked their own safety by starting petitions on behalf of the imprisoned (Loiselle, 2017, p. 5). During this time period, religion was the primary focus and way of life within small colonies. In this case, those in Salem mainly followed the Puritan way of life. Puritans began to define witchcraft as associating with the devil in exchange for certain powers in order to perform such cruel acts against others. During this time, witchcraft was considered both a sin and crime because it denied Godrs own superiority and brought physical harm to others. The Puritans began to feel that these events were happening because God was punishing them for the hangings of innocent people. The fear of being punished established a tense atmosphere and enforced the idea that anything involved with witchcraft was interpreted as an act of Gods wrath. Using their own belief and fear, they wanted to make sure that every last witch were to be exposed and punished in order to end the wrath of God. By the end of May 1692, around 200 people were jailed and charged with witchcraft. Shortly after accusing hundreds of people, some Puritans actually started to wonder whether or not the girls were being truthful or just trying to be spiteful towards their enemies. It also ended when people noticed that fewer people were confessing and more people were hanging. The Salem witch hunt and trials finally ended when people began to notice that people were being accused of witchcraft even when they had no evidence. The aftermath of the Salem witch trials was severe:141 people imprisoned, 19 people executed, and two more died from other causes. After months of doing these trials, the governor finally decided to put an end to the trials in May of 1693. The trials were declared unlawful and Massachusetts formally apologized for the trials. More than 200 people were accused, nineteen of whom were found guilty and executed by hanging. It was a tragic event that took place. This time period was unique for New England because of the number of terrible things that were occurring around the same time of these trials. Historically, there had never been a witch hunt of that intensity or size in America. After the trials took place, ideas about justice started to change after the trial. Spectral evidence was no longer accepted in court and the American idea that someone is innocent until proven guilty appeared. Salem faced a major change as a result of the Puritan ambition. Because of their thought on the ideal community as a straitlaced society, those who portrayed an imperfect model were to be isolated. It has been used in political rhetoric and popular literature as a vivid cautionary tale about the dangers of isolationism, religious extremism, false accusations, and lapses in due processes. The painful legacy of the Salem witch trials would endure for centuries. Hundreds of people were accused of being witches and the pastors of the local churches began to have their own trials in order to determine who was and who wasnt a witch. Salem executed the most people for being witches. Although the Salem trials were not the last, because of the Massachusetts authorities actions in discovering, acknowledging, and disowning their errors, the Salem experience helped to end witchcraft trials in Western civilization (Billings Manning, 2006). The question of what specifically caused these trials has been asked for over several decades. Although it is a simple question, the answer is difficult to answer because there are numerous factors that helped build and influence the trials. The main factors consisted of politics, religion, enemies, family feuds, and the fear of witchcraft. We may never know the cause of the Salem Witch Trials, but that will not stop scholars from evolving theories.

Management Thoughts and Theories - 1727 Words

MANAGEMENT THOUGHTS AND THEORIES The industrial revolution, which began in Europe in mid-1700s, was the starting point for the development of management concepts and theories. PRECLASSICAL CONTRIBUTORS TO MANAGENENT THOUGHT Name Period Contribution Robert Owen 1771- 1858 Proposed legislative reforms to improve working conditions of labor Charles Babbage 1792-1871 Advocated the concept of ‘division of labor; devised a profit-sharing plan which led to the modern-day Scanlon Plan Andrew Ure 1778-1857 Advocated the study of management Charles Dupin 1784-1873 Henry R. Towne 1844-1924 Emphasized the need to consider management as a separate field of study and the importance of business skills for running a business.†¦show more content†¦Frederick W. Taylor, who attended the presentation, was influenced by Townes ideas. Subsequently, Taylor developed the principles of scientific management. Major Classification of Management Approaches Major Contributors Classical approach Scientific management Frederick W. Taylor, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth and Henry Gantt Bureaucratic management Max Weber Administrative management Henri Fayol Behavioral approach Group influences Mary Parker Follet Hawthorne studies Elton Mayo Maslows needs theory Abraham Maslow Theory X and Theory Y Douglas McGregor Model I versus Model II values Chris Argyris Quantitative approach Management science - Operations management - Management information system - Modern approaches The Systems Theory - Contingency Theory - Emerging approaches: Theory Z and Quality management William Ouchi A Brief Overview of Classical Theories Approach Rationale Focus Contributors Scientific management One best way to do each job Job level Frederick W.Taylor Administrative theories One best way to put an organization together Organizational level Henry Fayol Bureaucratic organization Rational and impersonal organizational arrangements Organizational level Max Weber Frederick Winslow Taylor Frederick Winslow Taylor took up Henry Townes challenge to develop principles of scientific management. 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Global Health Essay - 1345 Words

The failure to engage in the fight to anticipate, prevent, and ameliorate global health problems would diminish Americas stature in the realm of health and jeopardize our own †¨health, economy, and national security, stated by The Institute of Medicine. Global health refers to health phenomenon that transcends across national borders. For instance, global health would address predicaments such as: infectious and insect-borne diseases that can spread from one country to another. Thus, global health should be addressed by collaborative actions and solutions. On the other hand, countries tend to focus on other essential issues that are occurring in the present day and therefore, overlook the global health issue. Some issues that countries†¦show more content†¦Thus, finding methods of educating people, and providing medical aid for these preventable diseases can avoid many deaths. Second reason for attending global health issue is for balancing resources. According to The Lancet Journal, ninety percent of the world’s health care resources are spent on diseases that affect only ten percent of the world’s population. (Norris, 2009) Therefore, ensuring that resources are evenly distributed throughout the world would assist to limit the diseases from spreading from country to country. Third, global health can influence Canadians indirectly such as, the increase of diseases. Some of these diseases becoming more prevalent is HIV/AIDS, malaria, and TB and are increasing poverty and political instability within countries. (Worldwide HIV AIDS Statistics, 2009) Thus, global health should be a concern because it can help prevent civil conflict in other countries. (Worldwide HIV AIDS Statistics, 2009) Fourth, global health should be a concern across all nations as there is more contact amongst people because of globalization diseases occurs at a faster rate. 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It is Global Warming which can be defined as the constant heating of Earth s surface, oceans and atmosphere. In order to understand global warming, the most vital concept is the greenhouse effect and how it plays an important part in its development. Water vapor and certain gases i n the atmosphere absorb infrared radiation, causing what is called the greenhouseRead MoreGlobal Health And Human Health2237 Words   |  9 Pageshave to be successful while working in the field of global health include empathy, teamwork, and perseverance. First, global health workers need empathy to understand the situation, culture, and values of those with whom they work. Global health workers interact with people of many different backgrounds and cultures; therefore, being able to understand others and show empathy will allow for better interactions for both parties. When a global health worker goes to a new country, the locals view them

Managing Strategic Human Resources Management

Question: Discuss about the Managing Strategic Human Resources Management. Answer: Introduction: In a contemporary organization, the trend for reward management plays a crucial role not only for the achievements and success of the employee but also for the betterment of the organization. Nankervis et al. (2014) highlight one such concept of rewards that is executive pay that comprises of six distinct components- salary, benefits, annual incentives, perquisites, long-term incentives and severance agreements. However, Shields et al. (2015) argued that the contemporary rewards management is more beneficial for the benefited people. Sparrow (2013) moreover states that individuals in this context rewarded or provide an opportunity to earn astronomical incomes through signing them for advertisement, hosting some business functions or call them for inaugurating a new business or factory to grab the attention of the community people. Sparrow (2013) moreover shared the opinion that even though the executives attain more money compared to their employees, they are not considered as celebrities. Shields et al. (2015) portray that the work of CEO or other managing executives are not broadcasted as the way the film stars, rock stars and sports stars is broadcasted. Thus, it for providing these executives such attention, media channels should take initiatives for transmitting their successful decision and the benefits the entire organization had received. Nankervis et al. (2014) highlight that not all people go through the companies' annual report or CSR reports and this is the reason people are unaware of their efforts. These efforts can be represented to the local people if they are offered chances like to be the chief guest of a factory inauguration ceremony, where they can share their experience and knowledge regarding the key success factor of that particular company (Sparrow 2013). A detailed advertisement on soc ial media sites concerning the evolution of their organization from conventional to recent times along with the benefits people had received in their daily life can make people aware of these executive's efforts and provide them more recognition for their motivation. Reference List Nankervis, A., Compton, R., Baird, M. Coffey, J., 2014. Strategic Human Resources Management, 8th Edn. Cengage Learning Shields, J., Brown, M., Kaine, S., Dolle-Samuel, C., North-Samardzic, A., McLean, P., Johns, R., Robinson, J., O'Leary, P. and Plimmer, G., 2015.Managing Employee Performance Reward: Concepts, Practices, Strategies. Cambridge University Press. Sparrow, P.R., 2013. 11 International reward management. Reward management: a critical text, p.233.

Writing with style Essays - Human Behavior, Culture, Punctuation

Writing with style: Preparing Essays, PAPERS and Dissertations in History and economic & social History University of Glasgow rev. 23 September 2010 DAS/MDF CONTENTS Introduction 2 1. Preparing Essays: The Basics 2 What Your Tutor Is Looking For in an Essay Structure Presentation Quotations Punctuation and Syntax Style Tables and Figures 2. Plagiarism 8 3. References 9 Footnotes Forms of Reference Bibliography 4. Dissertations 15 5. Citing Primary Sources and Theses 16 Appendices: 1. Mock Essay with Footnotes 19 2. Sample Dissertation Pages 20 INTRODUCTION Written work is central to assessment in History and Economic and Social History. Most undergraduate courses will require students to submit one or two essays, and these provide preparation for examinations. Postgraduates also write essays or papers. Both final year undergraduates and master's students write dissertations, which, while much longer than the typical essay, share many of its features. This handbook seeks to provide guidance to students about the preparation and presentation of written work and about the use and acknowledgement of books, articles, web sites, original documents, and other source materials. Its audience includes students in their first year, who are writing university essays for the first time, all the way to postgraduate students working towards a taught or research degree. PGR students should also familiarise themselves with College and University guidelines on layout of research theses. The first part of chapter 1 is intended primarily for first year students, although more experienced students may still find useful tips here, particularly in sections 1.5 onwards, which cover matters of style and presentation. The guidance on referencing in chapters 3 is relevant to all students writing essays and dissertations. Chapters 4 and 5 are intended for final year and PG students, who are writing dissertations and theses based upon original sources. All students should pay close attention to the advice on avoiding plagiarism in chapter 2. 1. PREPARING ESSAYS: THE BASICS Undergraduate students will usually be asked to write essays, while postgraduates will more often write papers. An essay answers a question set by the tutor, and the student has to start by figuring out what the question is about. A paper is one where the student decides the issues, approaches and parameters, within a general field agreed with the tutor. The initial sections of this chapter are primarily intended for undergraduate students writing essays, although all students should observe the points on punctuation and style from section 1.5 onwards. 1.1. What Your Tutor Is Looking For in an Essay Your tutor is looking for a coherent overall argument which answers the question you have chosen. You should answer the set question in as focused a way as possible. What is the point of the question? What subsidiary questions does it raise? Your tutor needs to see that you understand why the question has been asked and what implications it has. Plan before you start; your tutor will soon notice if your essay begins to lose coherence. A good plan of attack is necessary to a successful essay. Your essay will normally consist of an analysis which presents a series of points, in the form of an argument. Avoid a narrative or chronological approach. It is important that you present appropriate evidence and detailed case studies, but make sure that these support substantive points of your analysis. Do not include description just to fill space. Think about the relevance of all parts of your essay to the question, and the logic of your conclusion. Sustained argument is essential to a successful essay. While showing awareness of different points of views, you should be able to do more than just present the opinions of others; you need to be able to show that you have developed your own view of the topic. Your essay should not consist simply of quotations and paraphrases from your reading. 1.2. Structure There is no hard and fast rule for how an essay should be organised. Some essays will require you to be more aware of debates among historians, while others will place greater emphasis on primary sources. Nonetheless, your essay is likely to have to consider the following issues: . What is the historical context of the set question? What is happening in the period that is relevant? Is there a larger historical problem of which the set question is a component? . What have historians said about the question (or about the larger historical problem)? If they disagree (as they almost certainly do), is this due to differences in methodology, definitions of key concepts, or the evidence they select, or does it reflect particular ideological viewpoints